Chilli

Propagation

• Site selection and soil preparation
• The ideal site for the nursery should be under the sun and not have been grown with crops of the same family for the last 3-4 seasons. The nursery soil should be well aerated, drained and with good pH. The site should be ploughed to a depth of 20-30 cm and removed with stones, weeds and debris.
• The nursery soil should also be free from diseases and pests. It should be applied with well decomposed organic manure (5kg/m²) and the inorganic fertilizer such as NPK 17-17-17 (20 g/m²).
• The raised beds of 1-1.2m width and 20cm depth are made.
• Sowing and nursery care
• The quantity of seeds required is 0.5-1kg for 1ha (5-10g for 1 are). It is recommended to use non expired and from credited sources/seed companies.
• on the day of sowing, the bed surface is leveled and sowing lines of 0.5cm depth are made using a stick. Seeds are sown in lines at the spacing of 10-15cm x 2cm and are covered with soil. Then, the mulch ( dry grass) is applied on the bed, followed by regular watering.
• Upon germination (about 1 week), the mulching material is removed. The seedlings should be protected from the direct sunlight.
• When seedlings are overcrowded in nursery bed, it is recommended to do thinning to allow light penetration.
• Fungicides like Mancozeb (2.5g/L of water) and insecticides like Lambda-Cyhalothrin (1m/1L of water) can be applied when necessary.
• To harden the seedlings, watering frequency is reduced and seedlings are gradually exposed to direct sunlight 1-2 weeks before transplanting.

NB: Seeds can be sown in pots of 7.5cm diameter made in banana leaves or plastic. These pots are filled with the mixture of soil and well decomposed organic manure at 2:1 ratio. Two seeds are sown in each pot at 0.5-1cm depth. After 2-3 leaves have emerged, one well performing seedling is retained per pot and the other one is removed.  The use of seed trays for seedling production is also encouraged.

 Field selection, preparation and layout

The ideal field for peppers should have not be grown with tomato, eggplant, potato, tamarillo and tobacco or any other Solanaceous crop for the last 3-4 seasons. The field has to be deeply ploughed, the debris removed, and then leveled.  It is preferable to plant pepper seedlings on the plots, each having 1m -1,20m of width and a reasonable length with 40 cm width pathway.

Generally, 50 to 60 days old seedlings are used for transplanting. Healthy seedlings with thick stems and 4-5 true leaves are suitable for transplanting. Transplanting has to be done in early morning or late afternoon to avoid negative effect of direct sunlight on young seedlings. Before transplanting, the seedlings are watered with enough water to avoid damaging the root system while uprooting. The seedlings are uprooted with a soil ball around the root system.

During transplanting, it is recommended to make 15cm deep holes at each planting point. Then, one handful of well decomposed organic manure is applied in each hole and mixed well with the soil. The organic manure required is 200-250 kg/are (20-25t/ha). The recommended spacing is 60 cm x 45 cm.

1. Manure and fertilizers

During the production of sweet and hot peppers, correct fertilization is the single most important factor that determines the success of a crop. With good management practices these crops could be produced under a wide range of different conditions, however some growing conditions are more favourable than others.

Table: Quantity of recommended fertilizer per ha and time of application

	Organic manure	Nutrients Recommendation  (N:P:K), kg/ha	Inorganic fertilizer (kg/ha)
			NPK (17-17-17)	KCl (0-0-60)	Urea (46-0-0)
	20-25	130:80:110	470	50	130
Timing	At planting	–	One week after planting		30 days after NPK 17-17-17 application

 

For good management, the plants should be fertilized with 470.5 kg/ha of NPK (17-17-17), 130 kg /ha of Urea and 50 kg of KCl.  All NPK 17-17-17 and KCl should be applied one week after planting. Urea should be applied 30 days after the 1^st application,

2. Weeding and mulching

Weeding should be done regularly to keep the field free of weeds in order to avoid their competition for nutrients, sunlight and water with the main crop. Mulching is recommended to help prevent erosion, regulate soil temperature and conserve soil moisture. Earthing of plants may also be done after 2 -3 weeks after transplanting. Earthing operation will also help to remove weeds.

3. Irrigation

The supply of adequate water to the roots of a pepper plant is critical. Under- or over irrigation can have a devastating effect on the outcome of the crop. It is therefore very important to apply water at optimal times. More frequent light irrigations are needed on sandy soils. Higher applications with longer intervals will be needed on clay soils.

When scheduling irrigation, the size of the root system at the time of irrigation needs to be taken into account. In general, the root system can be compared to the aerial growth of the plant. The roots spread into the soil at a similar rate to which the aerial growth develops.

For irrigation purposes, the growth of peppers can be divided into four

growth stages.

• Stage 1: Establishment: it can last up to 2 weeks. Seedling establishment takes place and plants start to grow actively. Low amounts of water are used. After seedling establishment to just before first flower, it is highly recommended to reduce water drastically. It will force the roots to grow aggressively deeper into the soil looking for moist. This will help the plants at fruit set stage to handle difficult and stress related periods better due to the increased roots.
• Stage 2: Vegetative growth, development of first flowers and fruit: double the amount of water is used compared to the previous stage.
• Stage 3: Fruit set: growth is at its highest. Water usage at this stage is at its highest during the lifespan of the crop.
• Stage 4: Ripening and harvesting: very high loads carried on the plant. Water usage starts to decrease.

Pests and Diseases

Leaf blight (Rhizoctonia sp.) and white rusts are majors problems in amaranth cultivation.

Leaf blight is the most severe during rainy season under warm and humid conditions. Symptoms include appearance of white and irregular spots on leaf lamina resulting in the unmarketable produce.

Management:

• Sow resistant green amaranth variety during rainy season;
• Avoid splash irrigation;
• Spray mancozeb @ 4 g/l of cow dung supernatant as fine droplets. Spray at weekly interval initially and stop spraying 14 days prior to harvest to reduce residual effect of fungicide on crop.

1. Anthracnose (Colletotrichum capsici)

Anthracnose caused by Colletotrichum spp. is a major problem of ripened fruits. The fungus produces dark, sunken spots up to 2.5 cm across on sweet pepper. The spots occur on green and ripe fruits and their surface may be covered in moist weather with salmon-pink mass of spores. The fungus is seed-borne

Management:

• Use certified disease-free seeds
• Hot water treat own produced seeds.
• Practice field sanitation (removal of crop debris after harvest)

2. Bacterial wilt (Ralstonia solanacearum)

The disease occurs in scattered plants or groups of plants in the field. Characteristic symptom is wilting of the entire plant with no leaf yellowing.

The bacteria have a wide host range and can survive in the soil for long periods.

The disease is favoured by wet, warm conditions. Peppers are not as susceptible as eggplants, potatoes, tobacco or tomatoes. Rotation is not effective as the pathogen can survive for a long period – several years – in the soil and also attack a wide range of crops and solanaceous weeds.

Photo:  Bacterial wilt symptoms on pepper

Management:

• Plant varieties that are tolerant / resistant, if available
• Do not grow crops in soil where bacterial wilt has occurred
• Remove wilted plants from the field to reduce spread of the disease from plant to plant
• Control root-knot nematodes since they could facilitate infection and spread of bacterial wilt
• Soil amendments (organic manures) can suppress bacterial wilt pathogen in the soil
• Rotation is of limited value since the disease has a wide host range, but still it is recommended to avoid continuous planting of Solanaceous crops.

1.3. Fusarium wilt (Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. capsici)

Disease symptoms include drooping and yellowing of lower leaves followed by wilting of the entire plant. Leaves on infected plants remain attached and the vascular system of the plant is discolored, particularly in the lower stem and roots.

Photo. Chilli field infected with Fusarium wilt.

The fungus lives indefinitely in the soil and is spread in irrigation water. It is very susceptible to changes in temperature and soil moisture. The optimum temperature for disease development is 24 to 27° C.  Soil moisture has the greatest influence. The wilt does not occur in dry soil, but it is serious in poorly drained fields.

Management:

• Plant resistant cultivars, if available
• Lime the soil and ensure the soil has a good drainage

4. Powdery mildew (Leveillula taurica)

Yellowish blotches or spots appear on the upper leaf surface. The leaf surface is covered with a white to grey powdery fungal growth. The disease progresses from the older to younger leaves and shedding of the foliage is pronounced. Leaf defoliation leads to reduction in size and number of fruits. It also results in fruits being sun-burned. The disease is favoured by warm, humid and dry weather. The fungus causing powdery mildew also attacks eggplants and tomatoes. Overhead irrigation reduces disease severity.
Management:

• Plant resistant cultivars, if available
• Apply sulphur based fungicides (eg. Copperoxychloride) at the onset of disease symptoms
• Remove and destroy crop debris after harvest.

5. Viral diseases

About 17 viruses have been reported to attack peppers. Those considered economically important in Africa include alfalfa mosaic, chilli veinal mottle, cucumber mosaic, pepper veinal mottle, potato Y, tobacco etch, tobacco mosaic, tomato spotted wilt and chilli leaf curl.  Most of these viruses are transmitted by insects, infected seed and a few by mechanical means and infected seed: the first six above listed viruses are spread by aphids; tobacco mosaic is mechanically transmitted and infected seed; tomato spotted wilt by thrips; and chilli leaf curl by whiteflies.

General symptoms include mosaic patterns on leaves, yellowing , ring spots, leaf deformation or distortion, curling of leaves, and/or stunting of plants. They may also cause reduction of fruit size, distortion, and/or ring patterns.

Photo. Symptoms of viral diseases on pepper

Management practices often used to reduce viral disease incidence include:

Plant resistant cultivars, if available

Select planting dates to avoid high population of vectors

Close plant spacing to compensate for diseased plants

Use barrier crops to minimize virus spread

Use oil sprays to reduce virus transmission by aphids

Use reflective mulches to repel aphids and thrips.

Use certified disease-free seed in case of tobacco mosaic virus

6. Chilli Thrips (Frankliniella spp., Scirtothrips dorsalis, Thrips tabaci)

Thrips usually feed on all above ground parts of plants, preferring the underside of young leaves, flowers and fruits. Often they are concealed under the calyx. Plant damage results from thrips puncturing leaves and sucking the exuding sap. At the initial stage of infestation leaves have a silvery sheen and show small, dark spots of faecal material on the underside. When the attack increase leaves curl upward, wrinkle and finally dry up. This may cause fruit sunscald.
Heavy feeding damage turns leaves, buds and fruits bronze in colour. It may cause wilting, retardation of leaf development and distortion of young shoots resulting in stunted plants. Attack on fruits causes deformation and scarring (manifested as brown lines) of the fruits making them unmarketable, especially fruits for the export market. Thrips attack at the seedling and early stages of the crop delays crop development. Thrips transmit the tomato spotted wilt virus in peppers. S. dorsalis transmit the leaf curl disease of chillies.

Photo: Thrips damage on a chilli pod

Management:

• Natural enemies of thrips are important for natural control. Main natural enemies include anthocorid bugs (Orius spp.) predatory mites and spiders
• Cultural practices like periodical irrigation and hoeing would reduce infestation to some extent. In severe cases, spray insecticides like cypermethrin (1ml/1L of water) at 15 days interval

1.7. Aphids

Aphids suck the sap from the plants; they generally attack the crop in dry period and at the later stages of the crop. The quality of the produce is spoiled by imparting blackish colour to the Calyx and pods. They also act as a vector to virus.

Management:

The aphids can effectively be controlled by spraying the crop with insecticides like cypermethrin (1ml/1L of water) at 15 days interval

8. Whiteflies (Bemisia tabaci, Trialeurodes vaporariorum)

Whiteflies damage plants in three ways. Whitefly immature stages (nymphs) and adults suck sap from leaves. Their feeding, in addition to removing plant nutrients, produces chlorotic spots on infested leaves. Nymphs excrete a clear sugary liquid known as honeydew, which often completely covers the leaves during heavy infestation. Honeydew supports the growth of a black sooty mould, and as a result the leaves may turn black, affecting photosynthesis. Whiteflies are vector of important viral diseases such as chilli leaf curl, tiger disease, Serrano golden mosaic, and Texas pepper geminivirus.

Management:

• In areas where whitefly-transmitted viral diseases are a problem keep, the seedlings protected under a fine meshed insect netting until they are ready for transplanting. Make sure the netting is always properly closed
• Conserve natural enemies. Parasitic wasps, predatory mites, ladybird beetles, and lacewings are important natural enemies of whiteflies
• Whenever necessary, spray with neem products. Neem products inhibit growth and development of immature stages, repel whitefly adults and reduce egg laying.

9. Blossom End Rot (Physiological disorder)

The end of the fruit becomes off-whitish to brown in colour and takes on a “sunken in” appearance. As the fruit matures, these symptoms become more pronounced and the colour of the rot becomes dark brown to almost black.

Photo: Blossom end rot on Capsicum fruits

Management:

Boost the soil with calcium by adding lime, dolomite, gypsum or composted animal manures before planting the seedlings.

Water regularly: Capsicum continue to flower and bear fruit for prolonged periods of time, so ensure the soil around their roots is kept moist

Avoid fertilizers with a high nitrogen content: Nitrogen fertilizers will promote leaf growth at the expense of fruit, allocating calcium to the leaves instead of to the fruit.

A yield of 30 to 70 tons per hectare is considered to be good. Peppers are mainly picked when fully grown but still green. Peppers can be allowed to become red or yellow depending on the consumer preferences. During harvesting, grading and packing, the fruit should be handled with care. It bruises easily and this should be avoided as it promotes rotting.

Pepper is harvested in Label containers with your logo or farm name for enhanced marketing or plastic crates.

  

Labeled containers and plastic crates

1. Grading

Grading of Pepper (Capsicum spp.) is based on colour size stage of maturity Pack the fruits separately according to grade before sending them to market The losses due to grading at farmer level is 5-8%. If the grading is not good at farmer level another 4-5% loss in produce is possible.

2. Packing

Pepper (Capsicum spp.)  can be packed in various packing materials: polyethylene films, polyethylene bags or paper bags.

.3. Storage

Pepper (Capsicum spp.)  can be stored at a cool, dark, dry place for about a year. As this commodity emits strong odour; it shall be stored in separate compartment as far as possible. The storage temperature has a greater influence in colour retention than does light, air, kind of container or when the spice is stored in the whole or grind form .

4. Transportation

In general farmers use bullock carts or tractors for sending the produce to nearby market. From market yards the produce is transported to distance places in ordinary trucks and lorries. Perfect packing, care in loading and unloading and quick transport results in less spoilage of fruits

5. Processing:

Pepper (Capsicum spp.) is either eaten as fresh or dried and processed into various products such as sauces, spice powders, chocolates, etc….